What is Assessment As stated above, and according to Brown, assessment refers to a related series of measures used to determine a complex attribute of an individual or group of individuals.
This involves gathering and interpreting information about student level of attainment of learning goals. Assessments also are used to identify individual student weaknesses and strengths so that educators can provide specialized academic support educational programming, or social services.
In classroom assessment, since teachers themselves develop, administer and analyze the questions, they are more likely to apply the results of the assessment to their own teaching. Therefore, it provides feedback on the effectiveness of instruction and gives students a measure of their progress.
As Brown maintains, two major functions can be pointed out for classroom assessment: One is to show whether or not the learning has been successful, and the other one is to clarify the expectations of the teachers from the students Brown, Assessment is a process that includes four basic components: 1 Measuring improvement over time. Why Assessment is Important First and foremost, assessment is important because it drives students learning Brown For example, assessment strategies that focus predominantly on recall of knowledge will likely promote superficial learning.
On the other hand, if we choose assessment strategies that demand critical thinking or creative problem solving, we are likely to realize a higher level of student performance or achievement.
In addition, good assessment can help students become more effective self-directed learners Darling- Hammond As indicated above, motivating and directing learning is only one purpose of assessment. Types and Approaches to Assessment Numerous terms are used to describe different types to learner assessment. Although somewhat arbitrary, it is useful to these various terms as representing dichotomous poles McAlpine, Formative vs.
Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are to be used internally by those involved in the learning process students, teachers, curriculum developers. Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine readiness for progression. Informal vs. Formal Assessment With informal assessment, the judgments are integrated with other tasks, e.
Informal assessment is most often used to provide formative feedback. As such, it tends to be less threatening and thus less stressful to the student. However, informal feedback is prone to high subjectivity or bias. Formal assessment occurs when students are aware that the task that they are doing is for assessment purposes, e.
Most formal assessments also are summative in nature and thus tend to have greater motivation impact and are associated with increased stress. Given their role in decision-making, formal assessments should be held to higher standards of reliability and validity than informal assessments McAlpine Continuous vs. Final Assessment Continuous assessment occurs throughout a learning experience intermittent is probably a more realistic term.
Continuous assessment provides both students and teachers with the information needed to improve teaching and learning in process. Obviously, continuous assessment involves increased effort for both teacher and student. Final or terminal assessment is that which takes place only at the end of a learning activity. It is most appropriate when learning can only be assessed as a complete whole rather than as constituent parts.
Typically, final assessment is used for summative decision-making. Obviously, due to its timing, final assessment cannot be used for formative purposes McAlpine Process vs. Product Assessment Process assessment focuses on the steps or procedures underlying a particular ability or task, i. Product assessment focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process. Using the above examples, we would focus on the answer to the math computation or the accuracy of the blood test results.
Product assessment is most appropriate for documenting proficiency or competency in a given skill, i. In general, product assessments are easier to create than product assessments, requiring only a specification of the attributes of the final product McAlpine Divergent vs.
Convergent Assessment Divergent assessments are those for which a range of answers or solutions might be considered correct. Examples include essay tests. Divergent assessments tend to be more authentic and most appropriate in evaluating higher cognitive skills.
However, these types of assessment are often time consuming to evaluate and the resulting judgments often exhibit poor reliability. A convergent assessment has only one correct response per item.
Objective test items are the best example and demonstrate the value of this approach in assessing knowledge. Obviously, convergent assessments are easier to evaluate or score than divergent assessments.
Approaches to Assessment In approaches to assessment, two central tendencies emerge which are relevant to language as subject. One places emphasis on the assessment of learning where reliable, objective measures are a high priority. The focus here is on making summative judgements which in practice is likely to involve more formal examinations and tests with marks schemes to ensure that the process is sound McAlpine An alternative approach is to change the emphasis from assessment of learning to assessment for learning, implying a more formative approach where there is much more emphasis on feedback to improve performance.
The approach here might be through course work and portfolio assessment in which diverse information can be gathered which reflects the true broad nature of the subject McAlpine Between Assessment and Evaluation After collecting data from students there is then the need for assigning students with numbers or others symbols to a certain characteristic of the objects of interest according to some specified rules in order to reflect quantities of properties.
Measurement then is the process of determining a quantitative or qualitative attribute of an individual or group of individuals that is of academic relevance.
A test will serve as the vehicle used to observe an attribute whether in a written test or an observation or an oral question or an assessment intended to measure the respondents' knowledge or other abilities.
Then if the test is the vehicle then the test score is the indication of what was observed through the test and can also be quantitative and qualitative in nature. A good test should possess not only validity and reliability but also objectivity, objective basedness, comprehensiveness, discriminating power, practicability, comparability and also utility Shohamy Objectivity is when a test is to be said objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting its scope as well as in scoring the responses.
This is clear from the complaints made and concessions sought by the minority groups from the central government. Notes on the Formation of Attitudes: We already know, an attitude as an organization of concepts, beliefs, habits, and motives associated with an object. The formation of attitudes then consists of learning various concepts, beliefs, habits, and motives. The formation of attitudes follows the basic principles of learning.
There are three interrelated principles, which help to explain how attitudes are learned; the principles are of association, transfer, and need satisfaction. Broadly speaking, we acquire feelings and reaction tendencies, the two essential components of attitudes, through association and need satisfaction.
In other words, we learn to fear and avoid people, things or events associated with unpleasant happenings, and to like and approach those people, things and events associated with pleasant happenings. In the first case by avoiding and in the second case by approaching we seem to satisfy the basic need for pleasure or comfort.
For example, our most basic attitudes are acquired in infancy through interaction with our parents and other members of our family. An infant develops favourable attitudes towards parents and other members of the family simply because they care for his needs. Their presence becomes associated with his comfort and general wellbeing. Although feelings and reaction tendencies towards others are learned through association and need satisfaction, we acquire our thoughts and beliefs, which is the third component of attitudes in a different way.
In this way, social agents like parents and teachers can transfer attitudes by suggesting how best we should reorganize and integrate certain of our basic ideas. Thus for instance, parent or a teacher can transfer completely favourable attitudes towards Schedule castes of tribes by describing them as ill-treated, suppressed and yet hard working, friendly and lively; or by transferring a negative attitude by describing them as lazy, undependable and untrustworthy.
We also develop attitudes by adopting the attitudes of other important people outside the family circle. As we grow older, we tend to incorporate attitudes that seem appropriate for belonging to groups we consider important. Sometimes we even change attitudes as a means of leaving one group and becoming part of another.
The affective component of an attitude is considered by many psychologists to be at the core of the attitude. It may be associated with several of the human motives. Some psychologists have suggested that the formation and change of attitudes is probably different for attitudes with different motivations.
Katz suggests four different motivational basis for attitudes:. An attitude with a utilitarian basis is associated with the survival, safety, and some of the social motives of the, individual. Katz suggests that a person acquires utilitarian attitudes through experience with the object.
These attitudes like the value-expressive attitudes are also related to the motive for self-esteem but in a negative way. These attitudes are formed to defend the ego from his anxieties and hence they can be called defence mechanisms. Thus for instance, many psychologists are of the opinion that prejudice towards minority groups may in some people represent projection or displacement of feelings of hostility and inferiority onto the minority groups.
Some studies have shown that people who were dissatisfied with their economic conditions tended to express hostile attitudes towards the minority than those who were satisfied. These attitudes are acquired in relation to competence motives, specially the motives to have a clear and consistent view of the world. Such attitudes are formed in one of the three ways- 1 by actively seeking more information, or 2 by adopting towards the object the attitudes of other people, or 3 by adopting attitudes towards the object that are consistent with the rest of his thinking.
The best example one could think of the second way of formation of attitudes adopting the attitudes of others is that of stereotypes regarding other groups or nationalities.
The greater the effect of an attitude on thinking a behavior the more central it is. Some attitudes are closely related to one another; that is, they share common or similar concepts, beliefs, motive and habits. It is well accepted that Reading Literacy is not Ministry of Education, Govt of India vide letter No. The marks obtained in the board exam decide the college in which one can study. In class 12 the syllabus of each and every subject increases vastly and it is difficult to cover up every point.
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